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Recent evidence suggest that massive amount of practice of a skill results in the development of a specific memory representation that is distinguished by its enhanced performance capability relative to the other members of the same class that is uniqe and termed 'Especial Skill'. This study aimed to investigate the emergence of special skill and reevaluation the visual-context hypothesis using badminton players in three skill levels (expert, skilled, less-experienced). Subjects (10 players in each group, mean age=23.12 ±3.85 years) performered 100 backhand short serves at five distances (1.5, 2, 2.5, 3, 3.5 meters from net) in each of environmental conditions (normal and covered court). The regression analyze showed that accuracy in skilled group at 2 meters distance was significantly better than predicted by regression equation, supporting the especial Skill effect, but it wasn’t showed in two other groups. This specific advantage of practice at this point was not emerged at absence of visual cues that supported the visual-context hypothesis.

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This study examined the relationship between coping strategies and performance–goal discrepancy (PGD) with positive and negative effects before and after the competition. Sixty-two Iranian male sprinter runners, aged from 21 to 26 years, completed the Brief COPE (Carver, 1997) and the PANAS (Watson, Clark, & Tellegen, 1988) questionnaire two hours before and six hours after the competition. The score performance–goal discrepancy (PGD) achieved from difference of person predicted record and competition record. The results showed that the relationship of problem-focused strategies and negative effect was negative and the relationship of emotion-focused strategies and positive effect was positive before and after the competition. Also the results showed that the relationship of problem-focused strategies and positive effect was positive after the competition. The results of path analysis did not indicated that coping strategies mediated the PGD and negative effect relationship, prior and after the competition.

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The aim ofthisstudy was to investigatedifferentaspects ofimpulsivityin the athletes of contact and non-contactsports. volunteer participants were 60 athletes of contact (age: 25.9±4.6 years) and non-contact (age: 27.6±4.9 years) sports. Participants were asked to complete the Barratt’s Impulsivity Scale (BIS-11) and participate in continuous performance test(CPT). Multivariate analysis of variance results indicated that there was significant difference between athletes participating in contact and non-contact sports in the continuous performance test items(F_2,117= 3.27, p=0.001, partial &eta²=0.89) and impulsivity scale factors(F_3,116=47.66, p=0.001, partial &eta²=0.55).So that, in the attentional, motor, and non-planning impulsiveness and at the number of correct recognition in continuous performance test, the athletes of contact sports get more points than the athletes of non-contact sports. In contrast, the athletes of non-contact sports get more points in the average of incorrect time and the number of incorrect recognition than the athletes of contact sports. Therefore Thisfeature is effective in motor and non-motor behaviors of athletes in some special conditions that will appear as immediate and sustained function.

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The purpose of current study was to consider a course of doing psychological skills training (PST) program on chosen mental skills and the performance of teenager female taekwondo athletes with mean age 16 years of Iranian national team in 2009. The current study is in tentative type and pre and post test design with control group. To do this 22 people (female) among invited people to the camp of taekwondo national team in teenager level for participation in Asian competition of Kish were randomized and then were separated into two groups of control (10) and experimental(12). Then both of them completed the OMSAT-3 questionnaires in pre-test stage, so that to be evaluated from the view of mental skills and making check list for performance evaluation. According to gained results of questionnaires in pre-test stage and based on subjects weakness in skills of reaction to stress, fear controlling and concentration, an exercise package of purposing, goal setting, relaxation and imagery was used as PST program. After 4 months PST program of both groups was performed. Collected data was considered by independent statistical t-test. The results of this study showed that there is a significant difference between control and experimental groups in skills of reaction to stress and concentration after doing a course of PST program (P < 0.05). But there was no significant difference between these two groups in skill of fear controlling (P > 0.05). At last the results showed that there is a significant difference between control and experimental groups in performance after doing a course of PST program (P < 0.05). 

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Conflict Management is a leadership interpersonal skill. Using proper leadership styles can lead to effective conflict management. This research aims to study the relationship between transformational and transactional leadership in Bass model (1985) with conflict management strategies in Iran futsal pro-leagues coaches. Coaches leadership style and conflict management strategies were measured by MLQ (1996) and OCCI (1991) questionnaires. Statistical population involves 360 players that 197 persons were selected randomly. Above questionnaires were distributed after determination of validity and reliability. In order to data analysis, descriptive statistics and inferential statistics were employed. In order to determine the relationship between leadership styles and conflict management strategies, pearson correlation coefficient    was used. Results show that there was a significant positive relationship between transformational leadership style and collaborating strategy and there was a negative significant relationship with compromising, avoiding, accommodating and competing (p<0/01). There was a positive significant relationship between transactional leadership style with collaborating, compromising and competing strategies (p<0/01), negative significant relationship with avoiding (p<0/01) and accommodating (p<0/05) strategies. There was a negative significant relationship between laissez-fair leadership with collaborating and competing strategies (p<0/05), a positive significant relationship between laissez-fair leadership with avoiding and accommodating (p<0/01), and non significant relationship with compromising.  According to this fact that collaborating strategy is sign of effective strategies, avoiding and competing are signs of noneffective strategies and compromising and accommodating strategies show combined use of conflict it was infered that coaches transformational and transactional leadership have positive relationship with effective conflict management at this case the relationship with transformational style was stronger.

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The purpose of this study was comparing the current status of intramural program Iranian universities with ten years ago. In this study, the status of Intramural Program of Iranian Universities in three fields (educational, recreational, championship sport) regarding the number of implemented programs and participants in intramural program and active sports were compared. For investigation of status of intramural program in Iranian universities a researche-made questionnaire with acceptable face validity and (0.81 Cronbach alpha coefficients) reliability, was used. The statistical population included all Iranian universities and the statistical sample included 49 of total 60 universities covered by Ministry of Science, Research and Technology which was randomly selected. The research design was comparative. The result of present study comparison with those in ten years ago (Tondnevis, 1998). Inference statistical methods (Wilcoxon test for variable middle comparison) in level of (p&le 0/05) was used as statistical method. The Findings indicated that there was not significant difference (p>0/05) between number of educational programs and recreational program in the last ten years, while significant difference (p&le0/05) was found in the number of teams participating in championship sport, Also there was not significant difference (p>0/05) between number of participants in educational programs, but the difference between number of participants in recreational programs was significant(p&le0/05). The result revealed significant difference between numbers of active sports in universities intramural.  In conclusion the status of intramural sport program  in Iranian universities has been improved regarding ten year ago.

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The purpose of this study was to investigate the relationship between personal and organizational time management skills of directors of physical education administrations in Khuzestan province. Research design was correlational. The Statistical population of this study was consisted of general director and his assistants (N=6), managers of P.E offices (N=24), presidents (N=46) and vice presidents (N=40) of sports boards of Khuzestan province (N=116). The statistical sample was equal with the population. The data were collected with personal time management skill questionnaire (&alpha=0/69) and organizational time management skill questionnaire (&alpha=0/68) that made by Karami Moghadam in 1377. The construct validity of questionnaires determined by Confirmatory Factor Analysis. In order to analyze data, descriptive statistics and inferential statistics, including Pearson’s correlation coefficient, independent t-test and one-way ANOVA, were used. Test results showed that there was a positive and significant relationship between personal and organizational time management skills. Also, there was a significant relationship between individual time management skill and two dimensions of organizational time management skill (i.e. operational planning and management of communications). Furthermore, there was significant difference between organizational time management skills of directors according to their gender. In other words, women directors showed higher organizational time management skill than men.

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Today, the organizational culture variable is the main focus of analysis in many organizational studies. In the last years, this construct, has found special status in the field of sport management researches. This study aims to validate and investigate the psychometric properties of organizational culture assessment instrument (OCAI) based on the competing values framework model (CVF) in Iranian sport organizations (federations). The methodology of the present research is based on a correlation study (A factor analysis type of covariant matrix or correlation through principle components analysis method). The statistical population includes 52 sport federations (703 sport experts). In confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) method, the number of samples was determined according to the number of variables and 253 subjects (83.77%) were selected in a stratified random sampling method as final samples. The data were collected through OCAI and the construct validity, also, analyzed using LISREL 8.70 software and a CFA method.  The results obtained showed that OCAI questionnaire was a multi-dimensional construct and the four OCAI factors were confirmed to be as cultural profiles: Clan (6 items), Adhocracy (6 items), Market (6 items) and Hierarchy (6 items). The other result, confirmed the OCAI reliability suitability by computing internal consistency through cronbach &alpha test (r=0/86). Considering the confirmation of psychometric properties of OCAI and cultural profiles in factor analysis, organizational culture assessment instrument (OCAI) based on the competing values framework model (CVF) seems to be an appropriate instrument and theoretical framework for assessing the organizational culture in Iranian sports organizations (federations). Therefore, it is suggested that sport management researchers attempt to assess the organizational culture by using OCAI questionnaire in Iranian sport organizations.

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The purpose of this study was comparison of factors that affecting on spectators of football, basketball, and volleyball professional leagues. The statistical sample of this study was 500 spectators from each league that randomly selected from attendant spectators in stadiums. For statistical analysis of data used descriptive and inferential statistics methods includes Pearson correlation coefficient for determining consistency coefficient and criterion validity of questionnaire, Cronbaches'  alpha, explorative and confirmatory factor analysis, Levin, one way Anova, welch, LSD and Tamhane`s tests by SPSS and Amos soft wares. Result showed 8 factors that affecting on spectators attendance and these factors indicated. 75% of variance. These factors were facility, information- attractiveness, performance- antiquity, timing- informing, interaction- escape and excitement. Internal consistency of final edition research questionnaire was .89. Result of hypotheses showed that all of 3 football, basketball and volleyball spectators groups have significant differences in mentioned factors except facility and timing- informing factors. Result of this research displayed that mean of factors affecting football basketball and volleyball spectators` attendance are different among them and also in priority of them. 

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The aim of this study was a comparison between indoor sport facilities and equipments general administration of physical education and education ministry of Hamedan province with standards in term of safety and hygiene. Statistical population of this study includes the indoor sport facilities of hamedan province’s general administration of physical education (N=130) and education ministry (N=51) except pools. The sample was equal with the population. Data collection is done with the field method and it is used of safety and hygiene evaluation checklists that were made by Farzam (1388). For data analysis, descriptive statistics and inferential statistics, including single sample t-test and independent t-test, were used. The results showed that indoor sport facilities and equipments of both Hamedan’s general administration of physical education and education ministry, in comparison with the standards, were in a low level that this difference was significance (&alpha=0/05). Also, in comparison of indoor sport facilities and buildings' safety and hygiene condition between two studying organizations, there was significant differentiation in terms of fences, building, light and sound, air conditioner, toilet seats, and dressing rooms and showers condition, also, general administration of physical education was better than education ministry. In comparison of safety and hygiene of equipments and activity zones of sport indoor facilities (football, handball, basketball and badminton), there was significant difference between two organizations so that education ministry was better than general administration of physical education (&alpha=0/05).

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The purpose of this study was to determine the relationship of service quality, customer satisfaction and attitudinal loyalty on future intention of participations in fitness and aerobic centers of Rasht Township. The design of this study was correlational. The population of study includes all costumers of aerobic and fitness centers in Rasht that have one year attendance in this clubs. So, According to Morgan sampling tables and populations of the customers in this clubs that were 150 people, 108 samples elected randomly. To gather data, standard questionnaire of service quality (QSS) Alexandris (1999), customer loyalty (AIS) Alen (1990), customer satisfaction (OCS) Victor (2002) and behavioral future intention (BFIS) Bery (1996) was used(8). Results indicated that there was a positive and significant relation between service qualities with loyalty (r=0/395), satisfaction and behavioral future intention(r=0/486, P&le0/.5). Also there was positive and significant relation between loyalty with satisfaction(r=0/286) and behavioral future intention(r=0/524) and finally customer satisfaction had positive and significant relation with behavioral future intention(r=0/505, P&le0/.5). Regression test showed that only customer satisfaction (t=4/745) and loyalty (t=3/185) can predict behavioral future intention and service quality was mediator variable (P&le0/.5). According to the results, it should be considered that fitness and aerobic club managers should play an important role in customer satisfaction by providing more tangible services to attracting loyal customers.

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The present study explored the justice with job satisfaction and organizational commitment relationship between perception of organizational using a field sample. In the case, three questionnaires of organizational justice by Rego and Cunha (2006), job satisfaction by Gannon (Moghimi, 1385) and organizational commitment by Steers et al (Moghimi, 1385) are used. Validity and reliability confirmed (Organizational justice &alpha=0.92, Job satisfaction &alpha=0.96, Organizational commitment &alpha=0.70). Sample for the present study consisted of 118 experts working in the physical education organization of Iran. In this research descriptive statistics, coefficient of correlation and regression are used. Results show that among the subscales of organizational justice of I.R.I physical education organization the minimum score is for subscales of rewards distribution Justice (M=10.67± 5/07) and the maximum score for subscales of interpersonal Justice (M=10.45± 2/61) (according to their maximum scores). Totally in this organization, organizational justice isn't in a proper situation (M=44/62± 11/97 out of maximum score of 85). But variables of job satisfaction and organizational commitment relatively are in a proper situation. The results of research show that job satisfaction was significantly related to organizational commitment. Also Regression analysis of the obtained data indicated that organizational justice was significantly related to job satisfaction whereas Organizational justice was not found to be related significantly with organizational commitment. Through path analysis, job satisfaction and organizational justice was significantly related to Organizational commitment.

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The aim of this experiment was to study the effect of computer game on acquisition and retention of free throw basketball skills (accuracy and pattern) and compare this method with two patterning methods (skilled and learning). 50 high school students age range 15-17 years were selected as a research samples. Subjects after participating in the pretest were divided into 5 equal groups and each group practice separately for 2 weeks and 3 sessions per week (total of 6 sessions) their tasks. Acquisition test hold after the last training session and retention test was performed after 24 hours. Data analyzed using variance with repeated measurement. The significance level for all statistical methods was considered p<0/05 and used SPSS 17 for statistical calculations. The results showed that each group at post-test scores on both the accuracy and pattern of pre-test and the most advanced computer game plus exercise group significantly improved. According to the results, this study can state that the the simulation computer game improves learning of motor skills. This method is more effective than learning a skilled and patterning method.

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Introduction: Injury is common incident in most of the sports and games. There are many reasons for the factors incident of injuries, the psychological aspect can be considered as one of them. Method: The aim of present study was to examine the relationship between psychological skills and severity of injuries in football players of Tehran premier league. 108 players of Iran premier league participated in the study. Research data was collected by injury report form and Ottawa mental skills assessment tool-3. Pearson correlation test at significant level of 95% were used for analyzing the data. Results: 90.7 % of them resulted in 1-3 days missing of match or training and there is inverse and significant relationship between psychological skills and its subdivisions (P=0/0001) and severity of sport injuries in football players. Conclusion: The findings of present study show that having high levels of psychological skills helps premier league players to handle stressful situations in sports through enhancing self-confidence and other psychological factors confronting harmful psychological factors such as stress and anxiety and lead to decrease in injury severity. 

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The aim of this study was to measure the validity and reliability of perceived motivational climate in sport questionnaire (PMCSQ-2) for Newton and colleagues [2000[. For this purpose, random participants from 553 athletes 13 to 23 years were selected to complete the questionnaire. After applying the translate-retranslate technique, content validity ratio (CVR) and content validity index (CVI) confirmed by 10 Panels (CVR=0.66, CVI=0.97.For determining the construct validity, confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) based on structural equations was used, internal consistency of questionnaire was achieved by Cranach's alpha and Pearson correlation coefficient under test-retest method to study reliability of questionnaire. Results showed that the first model of PMCSQ-2(33 question (, wasn’t able to support the favorable fit and thus eliminated 6 problematic questions. Thereby the final model with 27 questions was included task-oriented climate (TOC) (effort/improvement, important role and cooperative learning) and ego-oriented climate (EOC) (unequal recognition and punishment of mistakes). Hereby, the Persian PMCSQ-2 (PPMCSQ-2) had acceptable fit index (RMSEA= 0.054, CFI= 0.9). Also, Internal consistency was acceptable (TOC=0.827, EOC=0.726 and PPMCSQ-2=0.618) and reliability of PPMCSQ-2(r=0.73) was affirmed. Therefore, PPMCSQ-2 can be used as a valid and reliable instrument to assess motivational climate in the Iranian athletes with the age range of 13 to 23 years.

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The primary aim of the present article is to analyze the efficiency of religious orientation in predicting flow experience of physical education students based on demographic variables. Also, the role of demographic variables was taken into account as the secondary aim of the study. 200 physical education students of the University of Isfahan were chosen randomly. They answered Religious Orientation Scale (Alport & Ross, 1987) as well as Flow Experience (Csikszentmihalyi, 1982). Multiple Regression Analysis was used to analyze the data and the structural analysis software was used to check the efficiency of the model. The results indicated that the intrinsic religious orientation model was positive predictor of the flow experience while the extrinsic religious orientation model was negative predictor of the flow experience. Also, the role of demographic variables indicated that the relationship between age and education with flow experience is positive and significant. In addition, it was revealed that the religious orientation model with the presence of demographic variables has the necessary efficiency in order to predict flow experience. All in all, the results of the present study confirmed that the intrinsic religious orientation is efficient in predicting flow experience. 

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The purpose of this study was to determine the efficiency of provincial administrations of the ministry of sport & youth by using non-parametric Data Envelopment Analysis. Inputs and outputs of the research were selected by the expert’s choice. Inputs for provincial sport administrations included staff, budget and sport facility capitation (percapita). Outputs for provincial sport administrations were included sports for all, championship sports, sport instructions, make new sport facility, sport events and active sport associations. Then the checklists were sent to the administrations. 28 administrations from 30 provinces completed the checklists. Data were analyzed by using DEA Solver software. Output oriented CCR and BCC models in Data Envelopement Analysis were used. Results showed that in 2008, 16 (%57) provincial sport administrations were globally efficient. In 2009, 17(%60) and in 2010, 15 (%53) of administrations were globally efficient. Also the results showed that the scale inefficiency was the most important resource of administrations’s inefficiency. It is essensial for administrations to use optimal level of resourses to prevent scale inefficiency.

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The aim of this study was to rank and analyze the barriers to implementing strategies in the sports system. For this purpose Analytical Hierarchy Process was used. Participants in this study compromised experts and scholars who were familiar with the strategic management in the formulation or implementation of the strategies involved in the sport (n =21). in order to provide couples with the scale AHP and confirm its validity by 6 experts. The weighting and ranking of barriers were identified by the Expert Choice software. Expert Choice software output analysis showed that the barriers to transition strategies with weighted (307/0) is the most important components in advancing the sport implementation strategies. Results also showed that at level 3 hierarchical tree, the lack of meritocracy in sports management (weight 284/0), the most important part of the infrastructure, the lack of attention to executive function of strategic plans in formulation stage (Idealist program) (weight 228/0), The main obstacle to the formulation of strategies, the commitment and belief of the few managers to implement strategies (weight 32/0), the main obstacle to the implementation of transition strategies neglect strategies in implementation in allocation of budget funds (weight 229/0),  The main obstacle is the strategies implementation stage. The findings of this study can be a source of solutions for strategic programs formulators and performers in the sports organizations.

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Many of the social interpersonal relationships are formed in the context of sports, exercise and physical activity (Jowett & Cockerill, 2002). One of the special relationship, is the relationship between athletes and coach, which in the case of duration and intensity is similar to conventional and unique relationship between leaders and followers. In such environments, a key component in determining the effectiveness of leadership is the existence of trust in the leader by the follower (Zhang, 2004). Therefore the primary proposes of this study were to a)examine the relationship between athlete’s trust in the coach and athletic performance and b) identification the portion of antecedences and consequences of trust in the coach to promote athletic performance. Based on the literature on trust, a theoretical model was proposed. In this model perceived characteristics (i.e., ability, benevolence, justice and integrity) and perceived behaviors (i.e., reactive and natural) of the coach were posited as the antecedences of trust in the coach. The athlete’s propensity to trust, which reflects the athlete’s general tendency to rely on others words and behaviors, and reputation which reflects the athlete’s acceptability of the coach were posited to moderate the relationship of antecedences with athlete’s trust in the coach. High level athletes and national champions (N=142) of three technical sport (i.e., Gymnastics, Diving and Vusho) were included the statistical society. The instrument of research was a questionnaire’s package which was comprised of four separate questionnaires. Two structural equation models involving (a) antecedents of an Athlete’s trust in the coach and (b) consequences of an athlete’s trust in the coach were tested employing structural equation modeling technique. Results showed that athlete’s trust in the coach can be predicted by antecedences (i.e., coach’s characteristics and behaviors) of trust in the coach. Athlete’s propensity to trust was found to moderate the relations of perceived coach’s characteristics on athlete’s trust in the coach. Athlete’s commitment and cooperate with the coach and athlete’s risk taking behavior as the consequences of athlete’s trust in the coach could be posited as the provident in perceived performance and finally athlete’s trust in the coach has a indirect relationship with perceived performance through commitment and cooperation with the coach. No significant relationship was observed between trust and its consequences with the actual performance of athletes.

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The objective of this study was to survey the relationship among coaching behavior, achievement motivation and team players performance of Iranian Handball pro-league. In this regard the coaching behavior questionnaire (CBQ) of Martin and Barens (1999) and sport attitude inspection questioners of  Willis (SAI) (1980) was used for survey of achievement motivation. Reliability of research tools after a fundamental survey by using Cronbach's alpha test (Questionnaire of Coaching Behavior, &alpha=0.74 and Sport Attitude Questionnaire, &alpha=0.74) was obtained. Statistical population of this study comprised of present players in Men Handball Pro-league in 1389-90.considering 14 players for each team, 168 players were chosen as a sample population. For the analyzes of the data descriptive statistic (average, standard deviation, tables and displays) and inferential statistic (Cronbach's alpha, for the test of inter homogeneity of questionnaire, confirmatory factor analyses for assessment of tools validity for gathering data, structural equation modeling in order to test the suggested approaches as well as test of theories) were used. The results revealed that there is meaningful relationship between positive reaction and achievement motivation among players. Also findings showed that there was a negative and meaningful relationship between negative reaction and achievement motivation. No meaningful relation was observed between positive, negative and natural behavior of coaching with team performance. Results showed there was a meaningful relation between natural behavior and achievement motivation. Also the relation between achievement motivation and team performance turn out to be meaningful. So due to research findings, programming seems to be important for coaching acknowledgements toward the effectiveness of team performanc