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Zahra Mohammadi Salari,
Volume 27, Issue 1 (4-2024)
Abstract
The current study explored the status of rating scales among Iranian EFL raters. It appeared that EFL/ESL assessment environments were significantly influenced by the perceived authority of native assessment groups. Consequently, examining the realities of rating practices in EFL/ESL settings could offer a more accurate understanding of how assessment is viewed and implemented. To assess this, the present study conducted a comprehensive survey within the Iranian EFL writing assessment framework. A carefully designed eight-item interview guide was created to investigate various aspects of the rating task, including the rating scale. This guide was administered to ten raters from various universities and institutions in Iran, all of whom possessed either a Master's or Doctorate degree in TEFL. The raters participated in 40 minutes interview sessions, and the audio-recorded interviews were transcribed by the researcher for qualitative analysis. Through a thorough content analysis of the interview data, some general patterns emerged. Results of interviews with Iranian EFL composition raters revealed that rating scale in its common sense did not exist. In fact, raters relied on their own internalized criteria developed through their long years of practice. Therefore, native speaker legitimacy in the design and development of scales for the EFL context was challenged and the local agency in the design and development of rating scale was emphasized.
Dr Hossein Siahpoosh, Phd Candidate Elnaz Hoseinpour,
Volume 27, Issue 1 (4-2024)
Abstract
Abstract
Due to the significance of assessment in language education, this investigation aimed to inspect the influence of models of dynamic assessment (DA) on intermediate EFL learners' interactional and interactive metadiscourse use regarding TOEFL independent writing task fluency. The participants were 105 EFL learners Jahad university in Ardabil. Based on the random assignment, two experimental and one control group were established. To measure TOEFL iBT independent writing task fluency, during eight sessions, the first experimental groups received interactional metadiscourse instruction using interventionist interactionist DA and the second experimental group received interactive metadiscourse instruction using interventionist interactionist DA. The control group was instructed conventionally. After the treatment, all participants were administered a modified version of the TOEFL iBT independent writing task as the post-test. The obtained data were examined through Kruskal-Wallis tests. The outcomes indicated notable variations across the different groups in terms of writing fluency. The interventionist group outperformed the other two groups showing that interactional metadiscourse contributed to writing fluency. However, regarding the contribution of interactive metadiscourse to writing fluency, both interventionist and interactionist groups performed better than the control group. This means that DA plays a facilitative role in improving TOEFL iBT independent writing task fluency considering metadiscourse use, irrespective of DA classifications. This study may suggest some implications for educators, learners, and curriculu
Dr Asghar Moulavinafchi,
Volume 27, Issue 1 (4-2024)
Abstract
This mixed-methods study explored the relationship between teacher commitment and classroom justice among Iranian EFL instructors, utilizing both quantitative and qualitative approaches to provide comprehensive insights. The quantitative phase involved 198 EFL teachers, selected through convenience sampling, and employed the English Language Teacher Commitment Scale (ELTCS) and Teacher Classroom Justice Scale (TCJS) to assess the constructs. Pearson correlation analysis revealed a significant positive relationship (r = .777, p < .05) between teacher commitment and classroom justice, underscoring the interconnectedness of these constructs. The qualitative phase, involving 9 purposefully sampled participants, employed semi-structured interviews analyzed through Braun and Clarke’s (2006) thematic analysis framework, facilitated by NVivo software. Findings highlighted teacher commitment as a multifaceted construct shaped by emotional, professional, and contextual factors, with themes such as emotional connection to teaching, professional identity, and motivation for growth emerging as key drivers. Classroom justice was similarly found to be multidimensional, encompassing strategies for fairness, challenges in implementation, and its impact on teacher-student relationships. Cultural influences played a significant role in shaping teachers’ perceptions and practices in both constructs, reflecting the sociocultural context of Iranian EFL classrooms. This study emphasizes the reciprocal relationship between teacher commitment and classroom justice, suggesting that fostering one enhances the other. It advocates for teacher training programs and institutional policies that address both ethical and professional dimensions of teaching, while also calling for future research to explore these dynamics longitudinally and across diverse cultural contexts.
Shadi Kamalirad,
Volume 27, Issue 2 (9-2024)
Abstract
Either motivation or culture are two key concepts in the field of second language learning. However, the incorporation of motivational and cultural aspects into curricula has been under investigated. To fill the existing gap, this study aimed to investigate the effects of motivation and cultural awareness raising based curriculum on Iranian ESP learners’ reading comprehension. To achieve these aims, 40 advanced adult participants were recruited and divided into 2 groups of experimental and control group. While the control group received the routine tradition curriculum, without any focus on cultural awareness and motivation, experimental group received a treatment which included a motivational and culturally based curriculum. The main instrument of the present study was a reading comprehension subtest of the 2006 institutional TOEFL Test which contained five passages. The findings revealed that motivation and cultural awareness raising based curriculum enhances participants reading comprehension. These findings have pedagogical implications for course designers and material developers.
Ms Taghreed Al Sa'ad, Dr. Mohammad R. Hashemi,
Volume 27, Issue 2 (9-2024)
Abstract
The present study explored the challenges encountered in implementing the "English for Iraq" curriculum in Iraqi preparatory schools, from the perspective of the instructors. The evaluation of the curriculum was conducted using Stufflebeam’s model, which comprises four components: context, input, process, and product. Fifty English instructors completed an online survey to participate in the study. The results showed that issues related to teacher training, resource availability, and the contextual relevance of the curriculum significantly impeded the successful implementation of the program. The results indicate that the socio-political environment has an impact on implementation. The most important factors that determine the curriculum's success are primarily the sufficiency of resources provided and the efficacy of the teaching techniques used. The research concludes that implementing suggestions for enhancing teacher training and adapting curriculum to better cater to the requirements of Iraqi students is crucial for improving the overall quality of English language instruction in Iraq.
Sahar Zahed Alavi, Mohammad Reza Ghorbani,
Volume 27, Issue 2 (9-2024)
Abstract
In educational settings, a common concern is whether instructional materials and assessments are cognitively aligned to foster deeper learning. This study investigates the alignment between the learning objectives presented in the Select Readings textbook and those evaluated in university-standardized achievement tests at Shiraz University, using Bloom’s Revised Taxonomy (2001) as the analytical lens. Drawing on Razmjoo and Kazempurfard’s (2012) coding methodology, both the textbook and two versions of related achievement tests were systematically analyzed. The results revealed a clear dominance of lower-order thinking skills, particularly factual knowledge within the Remembering and Understanding domains. Notably, the achievement tests emphasized Understanding to a greater extent than the textbook. Although the textbook incorporated some higher-order cognitive domains (Analyzing, Evaluating, Creating), these appeared infrequently in the tests. The findings point to a misalignment between instructional intent and assessment focus, raising concerns about the depth and validity of the evaluation tools. Contextual variables such as instructional intent, learner proficiency, and curricular constraints may also contribute to this imbalance, warranting further examination. The study underscores the need for assessment designers to adopt more cognitively diverse items that reflect the full spectrum of learning objectives embedded in teaching materials.
Ms. Faezeh Moteshaker, Dr. Hossein Bahri,
Volume 27, Issue 2 (9-2024)
Abstract
This study investigates syntactic and thematic strategies by a translation model based on artificial intelligence, ChatGPT, in English to Persian literary translation. Mona Baker's (2011) theory of linear dislocation aims to assess whether and to what extent four major strategies (voice change, verb change, nominalization, and extraposition) occur in AI-generated text. The data set includes Thomas Hardy's short story Absent Mindedness in a Parish Choir and its full Persian translation produced by ChatGPT. A qualitative comparative method was adopted, in which Baker's scheme was taken as the starting point for text analysis. Forty four segments were identified and examined, each demonstrating the use of at least one of the mentioned strategies. The findings show that ChatGPT makes considerable use of all four strategies implicitly: verb change (31.82%), voice change (27.27%), nominalization (22.73%), and extraposition (18.18%). These results preserved thematic structure and communicative coherence in most cases. The study identifies ChatGPT's capacity to respond to functional translation in literary translation with idiomatic, rhythmic, and rhetorical fidelity. It suggests Baker's strategies are still relevant not only for human translators but also as a valuable instrument for evaluating and post-editing AI translations, especially literature. This study investigates syntactic and thematic strategies by a translation model based on artificial intelligence, ChatGPT, in English to Persian literary translation. Mona Baker's (2011) theory of linear dislocation aims to assess whether and to what extent four major strategies (voice change, verb change, nominalization, and extraposition) occur in AI-generated text. The data set includes Thomas Hardy's short story Absent Mindedness in a Parish Choir and its full Persian translation produced by ChatGPT. A qualitative comparative method was adopted, in which Baker's scheme was taken as the starting point for text analysis. Forty four segments were identified and examined, each demonstrating the use of at least one of the mentioned strategies. The findings show that ChatGPT makes considerable use of all four strategies implicitly: verb change (31.82%), voice change (27.27%), nominalization (22.73%), and extraposition (18.18%). These results preserved thematic structure and communicative coherence in most cases. The study identifies ChatGPT's capacity to respond to functional translation in literary translation with idiomatic, rhythmic, and rhetorical fidelity. It suggests Baker's strategies are still relevant not only for human translators but also as a valuable instrument for evaluating and post-editing AI translations, especially literature.
Farnoush Ahangaran, Sana Javanmard Gholenji,
Volume 27, Issue 2 (9-2024)
Abstract
The present study strived to determine the extent to which Iranian novice and experienced EFL teachers’ self-efficacy and personality predicted their teaching motivation by considering the meditating role of their writing ability. To this end, the researchers used convenience sampling to select 176 novice and 159 experienced EFL teachers at 37 language institutes in Urmia (Iran) as the participants. Moreover, they administered the demographic information questionnaire, teaching motivation questionnaire, self-efficacy questionnaire, personality questionnaire, and the writing test of the study to the participants in a two-week period. Furthermore, the researchers took advantage of a reliable framework for assessing the participants’ writing performance. Finally, the researchers used SPSS 24 and Amos 22 to perform the data analysis of the study. The results indicated that novice and experienced teachers’ self-efficacy and personality were significant predictors of their teaching motivation. Moreover, their writing ability significantly mediated the relationships between their self-efficacy, personality, and teaching motivation. The results may provide teacher educators, syllabus designers, and teachers with guidelines on the role teacher factors have in the process of language teaching.
Mozhgan Mostafavi, Prof Moussa Ahmadian,
Volume 27, Issue 2 (9-2024)
Abstract
With the tremendous breakthrough in technology and its pivotal role, some EFL teachers are inclined toward applying technology in their classrooms. Given this, the present research aimed to discover the relationship between the use of Anki by language learners and the improvement of their vocabulary learning. Another focus of the study is to explore what self-regulated learning strategies are applied by English language learners to enhance their vocabulary learning through using Anki. To find whether they enable learners to improve their language learning or not. To do so, a survey was conducted among 60 young Iranian students aged from 16 to 20, forming two homogeneous groups from Jahesh Institute of Mohajeran, Arak. The instructor selected 120 target words from two intermediate-level coursebooks for the experimental group to practice using Anki, alongside instruction on self-regulation strategies. The control group continued with regular classes. Both groups took a pre-test and a post-test, while the experimental group also completed an MSLQ questionnaire after the program. Following 14 treatment sessions, the participants' scores were compared. Quantitative analysis revealed that the Anki users showed significant improvement in vocabulary retention compared to the control group, demonstrating the app's effectiveness. The second finding demonstrated the type of self-regulated learning strategies employed by the learners to improve their vocabulary learning. In conclusion, using Anki can effectively enhance EFL learners’ vocabulary acquisition. This finding suggests that TEFL teachers should integrate technology-assisted learning tools like Anki into their instruction while also guiding students in self-regulation strategies to foster greater autonomy. Combining self-regulated learning techniques with mobile-based learning technologies offers significant potential for improving EFL students’ vocabulary retention and overall language development, ultimately leading to more successful learning outcomes.
Mr. Mohammadtaghi Ghasemi, Ms. Fatemeh Bornaki, Mr. Abbas Godarzi,
Volume 27, Issue 2 (9-2024)
Abstract
Few dramatists have achieved the global reach and adaptability of William Shakespeare. In Iran during the Pahlavi era (1925–1979), Shakespeare’s works entered cinema in ways shaped by modernization, secularization, and Western influence, yet mediated by censorship and persistent patriarchal norms. While tragedies addressing regicide and royal authority were largely unstageable, filmmakers adapted “safe” plays like The Taming of the Shrew into the commercial filmfarsi genre, blending melodrama, comedy, and spectacle. Davoud Esmaili’s 1969 feature The Cat Is Killed at the Bridal Chamber, inspired by both Shakespeare’s play and Zeffirelli’s 1967 film adaptation, exemplifies this process, presenting the comedy through exaggerated humor while normalizing masculine aggression and female subordination. Employing Linda Hutcheon’s theory of adaptation and Laura Mulvey’s concept of the male gaze, this article examines how the film reinterprets The Taming of the Shrew not as critique but as reinforcement of patriarchal authority, revealing how filmfarsi both reflected and intensified gender hierarchies.
Dr. Mostafa Shahiditabar, Dr. Mohammad Amin Mozaheb, Ms. Motahareh Daghighi,
Volume 27, Issue 2 (9-2024)
Abstract
Discrimination in the education system and curricula is not limited to disadvantaged groups, and this issue is also evident in textbook content. The important role of textbooks in classrooms is undeniable. In this regard, the present study examined Iranian high school English textbooks named the “Vision” and “Prospect” series, as well as one of the localized English textbook series in Iran, the “Eight” series, focusing on the images contained in these books. In this study, Multimodal Critical Discourse Analysis (MCDA), proposed by Machin and Mayr (2012), was employed as the theoretical framework to critically examine the images in these textbooks. The findings of this study showed that a form of neoliberalism, as conceptualized by Fairclough (1993), is present in these books, the consequence of which is the depiction of luxurious and lavish schools instead of ordinary schools; this does not benefit underprivileged groups, as they are unable to afford the costs of privatization and are dependent on government support. In addition, in the “Eight” series, images based on the target-language culture are more frequently observed. This can prompt greater attention to images rooted in Iranian culture, which would help learners better understand the content and make it more tangible for them. This study can offer suggestions for improving and enhancing the “Eight” series.
Ghasem Barani, Zeynab Hedayati Katouli, Mohsen Davarzani,
Volume 28, Issue 1 (4-2025)
Abstract
Teachers as the heart of each educational system have been in danger of burnout according work-family interference. The following thesis relies on Hobfoll’s conservation of resources theory to investigate the association of work interference with family (WIF) and family interference with work (FIW) with burnout among the EFL teachers in Iran. The study also explores the moderating role of emotional intelligence (EI) in the relationship between work-family interference (WIF/FIW) and burnout. Data were collected from 155 EFL school teachers (male = 62, female = 93) in high schools in Iran using a questionnaire survey. These available participants were at the range age of 23 – 58, and they had different years of experience teaching at different public and private schools. The sampling strategy was informed by convenience sampling. Data were gathered through FIW five-item scale developed by Netemeyer et al., WIF five-item scale developed by Netemeyer et al., burnout 22-item scale, developed by Maslach et al., Wong and Law Emotional Intelligence Scale. Also the questionnaires were collected by the researcher and entered into PLS software for further analysis. The study utilized partial least squares path modeling to assess the proposed measurement and structural model. The design of this study is based on quantitative correlational design applied in Structural Equation Modeling (SEM). This study is utilized as a quantitative method of research in which three quantitative variables were examined, and it determines if there is any relationship among them. Findings reveal that WIF and FIW are positively associated with burnout. The association of WIF was found to be stronger than FIW with burnout. There is a statistically significant negative relationship between work-family interference and teachers’ burnout. Also, there is a significant relationship between family-work interference and teachers’ burnout. On the other hand, emotional intelligence does not moderate the relationship between family-work conflict and job burnout. This study provides some important implications for ministry of education, teachers and other stakeholders.
Dr. Reza Nejati, Dr. Mavadat Saidi,
Volume 28, Issue 1 (4-2025)
Abstract
effectiveness, however, challenges such as academic dishonesty remain significant concerns. Un-proctored online assessments, especially multiple-choice exams, are particularly vulnerable to cheating and plagiarism, threatening the integrity of student evaluation. While numerous strategies have been proposed to mitigate cheating, the effectiveness of specific measures in un-proctored settings remains underexplored. This study investigates the impact of several anti-cheating strategies on un-proctored online multiple-choice exams administered through Moodle. Strategies tested included fixed time limits, limited exam availability,restriction on backtracking, and auto-submit on time expiration. The TOEFL reading section was administered to 608 students to assess the effectiveness of these strategies. Results showed a Variance-Covariance Matrix value of +0.386 and a -2log likelihood of +37.913.919, indicating validity for the sample and effective mitigation of cheating. Item and person reliability analysis revealed that fewer than 4% of participants exceeded the outfit index of 1.2, suggesting minimal instances of random guessing or dishonesty. This research contributes to the growing body of literature by providing empirical evidence on the effectiveness of specific anti-cheating measures in un-proctored online assessments.
Nazanin Asadi,
Volume 28, Issue 1 (4-2025)
Abstract
Literary translation is a vehicle for the transmission of ideological values from one culture to another. Through a Critical Discourse Analysis of two Persian metatexts of Zora Neale Hurston’s Their Eyes Were Watching God, this article examines how these translators represent the text’s themes of gender and race. By implementing an integrated framework developed by Farahzad, the critical discourse analyses examine three dimensions of each metatext: textual, paratextual, and semiotic. The Comparative CDA findings demonstrate that Dowlatabadi’s metatext diminishes the confrontational nature of the prototext by euphemizing, generalizing gendered terms, and neutralizing racial terminology. While this strategy creates opportunities for greater cultural accessibility for the Persian audience, it also undermines the original feminist and anti-racist critiques. Conversely, Elahbakhsh retained the prototext’s directness, sociolinguistic texture, and ideological tension. Elahbakhsh’s commitment to the prototext is further strengthened through the use of extensive scholarly apparatus (introductions, endnotes, etc.). This study found that translators play a significant role in mediating ideas through their work. By making decisions about how to translate individual words and cover designs, translators change how readers interpret and respond to a text’s political message. This research highlights the need for greater ethical consideration of the effects of translation practice on how literature is transformed across cultures.
Fatemeh Fazlali,
Volume 28, Issue 1 (4-2025)
Abstract
This study explores the interplay cultural identity (CI), cultural intelligence/cultural quotient (CQ), and critical intercultural awareness (CIA) among English as a Foreign Language (EFL) learners with a focus on the potential influence of gender and educational context. To this end, a total of 192 EFL learners (122 language institute and 70 senior secondary school) in Tehran (120 females and 72 males) of different ages (17-35) from different language institutes and senior secondary schools took part in the study. The participants completed the Cultural Identity Clarity Scale (Usborne & Taylor, 2010), the Cultural Intelligence Scale (Ang et al., 2007), and the Critical Intercultural Awareness Questionnaire (Susilo, 2022). The results indicated that EFL learners’ cultural identity and intelligence/cultural quotient (CQ) were significantly associated with critical intercultural awareness (CIA). Moreover, EFL learners’ CQ was found to be the strongest predictor of critical intercultural awareness (CIA). The findings also revealed that gender and educational context played significant roles: female EFL learners had higher levels of cultural identity, cultural intelligence/cultural quotient, and critical intercultural awareness than their male counterparts. Moreover, the results designated that EFL learners in language institutes had higher levels of cultural identity, cultural intelligence/cultural quotient, and critical intercultural awareness than senior secondary school counterparts. The results can offer valuable insights for EFL policymakers, managers, curriculum developers seeking to enhance intercultural competence in language education within the Iranian context.
Sara Ashouri,
Volume 28, Issue 1 (4-2025)
Abstract
Abstract
The increasing popularity of AI writing tools raises the question of how students perceive the fairness of automated feedback, particularly in comparison with teacher feedback. The perceived fairness of the feedback is an underexplored subject. This paper investigated the perceived fairness of AI writing feedback among English as a Foreign Language (EFL) students compared to teacher writing feedback and the relationship between students’ acceptance of AI writing feedback. The design was quantitative, within-subjects and it was based on 35 B1–B2 EFL students who were enrolled in an English language institute. The participants were given a brief writing assignment and were provided with teacher feedback as well as AI feedback. Subsequently, they completed a survey that assessed perceived fairness, perceived usefulness, perceived ease of use and acceptance (intention to use) AI feedback. The data were analyzed using descriptive statistics, t-tests, correlation, and regression. Findings indicated that teacher feedback was perceived as significantly fairer than AI feedback. The AI feedback was positively evaluated. Perceived fairness was related to students’ acceptance of AI feedback. The regression analyses indicated that acceptance was predicted by perceived fairness, usefulness and perceived ease of use jointly, but usefulness emerged as the strongest predictor. The findings imply that AI feedback is most effective when it is used as a complement to teacher feedback in EFL writing instruction.
Dr. Mohammad Amin Mozaheb, Dr. Narges Sardabi, Mr. Mohammad Javad Rahimian,
Volume 28, Issue 2 (9-2025)
Abstract
This study examines how emotion wrods are reflected in EFL (English as a Foreign Language) textbooks. This research focuses on two textbook series, namely Touch Stone and Four Corners, and evaluates them based on emotional words. To investigate the emotional impact of the textbooks, TagAnt and AntConc tools were employed, using the English word database of emotional terms (EMOTE) by Daniel Grühn. Emotion words with a range higher than 5 and lower than 2 were selected to gauge their degree of emotionality refelected in the analyzed textbooks. The findings indicate that the Touch Stone series contains a higher range of emotional words compared to Four Corners. Finally, the attitudes and experiences of teachers towards the emotion words represented were examined through interviews with a focused group of English language teachers.
Ms. Zahra Vahdati, Dr. Hossein Bahri,
Volume 28, Issue 2 (9-2025)
Abstract
This study explores the challenges of translating humor and cultural references in the Persian subtitles of The Golden Girls, Season 5, Episode 24. The primary objective is to identify and analyze the translation strategies used in semiprofessional Persian subtitles and to compare them with AI-generated translations, to determine whether the loss of comedic tone, dilution of culture-specific elements, and difficulty conveying sarcasm persist or manifest differently within subtitling constraints when using AI tools. The analysis reveals common human strategies like adaptation, omission, and domestication used to address these challenges. Our findings indicate that while AI translations may achieve greater literal accuracy and consistency, they often exhibit a more pronounced failure in replicating comedic timing, recognizing nuanced sarcasm, and making contextually appropriate cultural substitutions, instead defaulting to overly literal or culturally neutral renderings that further diminish the source text's humor and cultural specificity. The paper proposes solutions, including cultural adaptation, creative clarification, and hybrid human-AI workflows to improve viewer understanding. The findings underscore the critical balance between staying faithful to the source and ensuring accessibility for the target audience in audiovisual translation, highlighting the continued irreplaceable role of human cultural and comedic intuition.
Mr Kourosh Ghahremani, Dr Hossein Talebzadeh,
Volume 28, Issue 2 (9-2025)
Abstract
Neologisms emerge within the language mainstream and constitute an indispensable aspect, particularly in literature and new phenomena in our lives. These novel terms, born from creative minds, often lack defined equivalents in other languages, posing challenges for translators. In the realm of translation studies, neologisms, especially those related to the coronavirus pandemic, have garnered significant attention. This study focuses on slang "coroneologisms" and their translations compiled by Thone (2020). Utilizing the resources provided by english-corpora.org, the frequency of coroneologisms was examined. A questionnaire featuring a selection of the most frequently occurring neologisms was randomly selected and distributed to twenty-nine translators to gauge their translation approaches. The results, classified according to Newmark's (1988) taxonomy to reveal the normalization status of equivalents. Strategies employed for translating normalized examples are identified using Molina and Albir's (2020) framework. The study finds that various neologism types, such as blends and derived words, undergo normalization, primarily through translation into blends. While translators employ diverse strategies like amplification and generalization, they generally lead to normalization. However, old words with new meanings often face mistranslations or omissions rather than normalization. Overall, blends emerge as the most normalized neologism type, whereas old words with new senses exhibit the least normalization.
Dr. Elahe Sadeghi-Barzani, Mrs. Atefe Nikfakhr,
Volume 28, Issue 2 (9-2025)
Abstract
Abstract: In the globalized world today, translation plays an important role to make people of all around the world closer together by introducing each other’s cultures. However, translation is impossible in some cases or it is, sometimes, a severely challenging task for translator, due to the existence of cultural items or conceptualizations. This study determined and rated the translation strategies applied in the translation of a sample of culture specific items (CSIs) in the English translation of the novel “Missing Soluch” by Dowlatabadi. To do so, 46 culture-specific items were selected from this novel, based on purposive sampling and text analysis of the field of Cultural Linguistics. Then, the applied strategies for translating these items were determined and classified through utilizing the Newmark’s (1988) translation classification. Results revealed that the most frequent translation strategies were “functional equivalence”, “literal translation” and “descriptive equivalence. However, the most successful strategy was applying “functional equivalence” which leads to more loyalty of target text to the source text and preserving the source text impression on the target audience.
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