Journal of Spatial Analysis

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Although environmental hazards occur because of natural factors, however, political economy, controlling the sociospatial relations and conditions, also affect centrally the increase or decrease of physical and social vulnerability caused by hazards. In this regard, present paper has put the spotlight on “explaining the role of spatial distribution of social stratification in vulnerability to environmental hazards in the city of Tehran”. This is based on Political Ecology Approach which emphasizes the domination of prosperous social strata on the urban natural-ecological endowments and utilities and marginalizes low-income and inferior social strata. So, the recognition of social strata inhabitation across the city is significant for the analysis of social inequalities and their effects on the vulnerability of environmental and human hazards. The concentration of middle to high class and working and inferior classes has also caused the range of social inequality to increase in the metropolitan of Tehran and this trend per se has transformed Tehran to the spatial reflection of the contrast between poverty and wealth to the greatest extent in the country. Hence, regarding the fundamental role of social stratification and class structure and its evolution in explaining the dynamics of socio-economical relations in the dominant society and the process of urban space production and reproduction, explaining the role of spatial distribution of social stratification in vulnerability to environmental hazards in the city of Tehran is significant and necessary. Vulnerability to environmental hazards has been studied from the physical, biological perspectives, social construction perspective and contingency perspective. The present paper emphasizes the effects of social construction on the production of vulnerability. Scientists think radical and critical geography of space is a kind of social production. They believe that not only urban space, but also the entire space has a social structure and nobody can analyze it thoroughly regardless to the society’s work on the space. Thus in a world under the Capitalist System, urban space represents a reflection of the control and domination of superior social strata (owners of power, wealth and high status, or the owners of political, economic and socio-cultural assets) in its functional zones.  This has been appeared in the recent decades, within the literature of hazards and catastrophes and based on “an approach of vulnerability” which has been rested on Political Ecology. The mentioned approach has been concentrated on a series of socio-spatial conditions and political economy which shapes the hazards and catastrophes. Some of the effective social conditions in shaping the hazards and catastrophes and their amounts of vulnerability depend on the racial, ethnic and class characteristics. Racial, class, ethnic and political economy analyses, which dominate their social ties, are considered as part of understanding knowledge system of hazards and catastrophes. Since this causes detecting the role of political economy of inequalities and racial, class and ethical processes and the marginalization caused by it, in the emergence of hazards and exacerbation of catastrophes and crises impacts. To use job structure means to emphasize concrete class structures, according to which an image of social inequality can be offered. Thus in present study, for structure determination and main composition of social stratification in Iran and Tehran “Structure Determination and Composition of Social Strata Model” was used. According to this model and with the use of data from matrix tables, major occupational groups and occupational situation have been classified in 5 classes superior strata, traditional middle strata, new middle strata, working and inferior strata and farmers. The data were prepared and analyzed by ArcGIS and Ms Excel softwaares.   During the last century, uneven development process of the country was in favor of the Tehran and superior strata and powerful institutions located in this city. Regarding the processes and relations emerged from political economy of space and political ecology of Tehran, social strata inhabitation of Tehran has been in compliance with environmental capacities raised from topographic and microclimatic distinctions and ecological endowments. The findings of present paper also indicate physical and social vulnerability changes caused by probable hazards related to the general pattern of social strata inhabitation in north-south geographical direction. Spatial distribution of populated blocks in 1996, for which more than 30% of their inhabitants were “senior managers and experts” and “manufacturing jobs employees and laborers”, indicates the above mentioned issue and clearly show the poverty (old poor neighborhoods) and wealth (expensive and rich neighborhoods) spatial centers. In addition, according to the supporting studies on Tehran Comprehensive Plan, most of old urban tissues are in central and southern regions. Also according to the International Seismological Research Agency (JICA), the mentioned regions would be the most vulnerable in the Tehran probable earthquakes. Therefore, it can be said that findings and results of the present study indicate the determining place of political economy of space and urban political ecology and also the fundamental role of social stratification and class structure for recognition, analysis, explanation and understanding of the urban development challenges and problems. Hence, this is impossible to reduce social and physical vulnerabilities caused by natural and human hazards, particularly in the poor neighborhoods, regardless of political economy of space mechanisms and reduction of the gap and even urban development. 

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Today slum refers to those areas of the city which are not necessarily situated at the corners of the city, but to those which are in margins from economic, social, cultural, and other urban life aspects, that has formed a settlement in which the least living-supplies of healthy water, electricity and gas, transportation system and a clean environment suffice their lives. This type of settlement is due to the asymmetry and commonality of features and conditions of living in the main parts of the city. And generally indicate the low level of living conditions in comparison with the average standards in the main city specifically, and also in living conditions in cities as a whole. On the other hand, informal settlement refers to the discordance of settlement with the approved regulations of governmental organizations and particularly of municipalities. Those areas which are situated outside the servicing scope of the general and governmental organizations such as electricity, gas, and telecommunications offices, along with municipalities accompany various phenomena such as urban poverty, poor housing, immigration from countryside to cities, environment pollution, unhealthy environments and etc.

            In Iran, slum began in the 30s (solar calendar) with the immigration of village dwellers to the cities, and after a decade, it was prospered due to land reforms and economic-social policies of the day, a growing increase which has never stopped since. Slum or informal settlement in the outer parts of the cities is not just a physical notion but is an outcome of the macro structural factors in economic, social, cultural, and political aspects in a national or regional scope. The reasons for this phenomena vary which can differ from one place to another. Nevertheless immigration is one of the main reasons for slum settlements. It can simultaneously play two roles; it can be a solution to demographic crises. It leads the surplus population out of the region and accordingly the human power is directed where is needed most. It balances the structural asymmetries of population and by reducing the development imbalances in different regions result in the betterment of the status quo. And on the other hand, it might be possible that by immigration of the human power, the economic equilibrium between the source and destination community would be disturbed, and by having a community without any human power, it generates complex social and cultural situations; which all in all leads to a congested crowd overpopulating specific big cities and regions.  In this way, it brings about problems in servicing and efficient regulation of issues and thus be regarded as a disturbing element of development and mutual understanding. The investigated region has been exposed to the crises of immigration and slum settlements recently, so much so that based on the population and housing census of 2006, population growth rate of Shahriar rose by a far distance from other cities to 8.7 percent. Thus, this research was conducted to investigate the elements of immigration and slum dwelling in Shahriar city. And it aims to answer these questions:

1. How social, economic, and demographic factors influence the slum settlements of those who have migrated to this city?
2. How is the local dispersion in Shahriar?

On this basis, with the researches and investigations conducted at the outset of the study, district 2 was selected as a fit choice out of the three districts of 1, 2, and 3 which settled slums. Since all the locals were not slums in this specific districts, with proper investigation the slum areas were identified which had a high rate of immigration; with whom interviews were ran and questionnaires distributed. To this end, by following Cochran formula, 200 people were selected as samples through cluster random sampling out of the statistical community. To analyze data, descriptive statistical methods such as central index, dispersion and inferential statistics like Chi-square, Wilcoxon and Friedman tests were utilized.

The results of the  study indicates that the slum in Shahriar are situated in the old and cheap sections of the three districts of 1, 2, and 3. Also, after a detailed examination it was proved that Shamloo local in district 2 is more suitable than the other ones. On the other hand, by investigating the economic factors (such as job opportunities and income) it was indicated that immigration is very important from the aspect of providing job opportunities. Secondly, social factors are more important in slum settlements issues. For instance, one can refer to urban and welfare facilities, educational facilities, health and recreation facilities are all social factors. On the other hand, those people who have migrated due to pursuing education, higher level of welfare, better facilities etc. are all below 30 years old. Based on the findings of this research, families were not significantly changed after immigration in comparison with the period before it, but it is a vital element in three membered families in times of immigration. All has been done to meet the financial needs of the family. Therefore, one can claim that most immigrations to slum areas have been due to economic and social deficiencies of the source society.

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Identifying spatial patterns in vulnerability involves a comprehensive look at vulnerable points. And provides analytical power to the authorities. Therefore, it is necessary to recognize patterns of vulnerability so as to minimize the amount of damage to them in the event of a crisis. The city of Tehran, as the political and administrative center of the country, is faced with a variety of risks due to demographic burden and physical development. In this research, we tried to analyze the spatial distribution pattern of urban vulnerability to natural hazards in social and physical dimensions in Tehran's 7th region. The method of this descriptive-analytic study and the model used for trigonometric fuzzy logic. The results indicate that: According to the z score, the positive values are 1.96 up, which form the clusters of hot spots in the southeastern region of the arena; It is a sign of more vulnerability in these areas. Also, negative values of 1.96 and less, which are statistically significant and blue, have formed cold spots, And it is interpreted that low vulnerability zones are clustered in space and are mainly located in the northwest. Therefore, the lower the color range in the red and blue areas was less statistically significant  to the point where this positive net worth is 1.65 that in this situation, the spatial behavior of the vulnerability is considered to be non-significant in terms of hot or cold clusters with high and low values and spatial autocorrelation that the map is also displayed in yellow.
 

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The geographical location of Yazd province has greatly influenced the creation of spatial and climatic diversity and the provision of appropriate facilities for the formation of various natural and cultural attractions. Nevertheless, these areas need more attention in terms of the potential of tourism development for social sustainability. This research is done with the aim of spatial analysis of tourism capacity of desert areas and its role in social sustainability, and according to its nature, it is an applied type. The research method is descriptive-analytic. Documentary and field data are used to collect data. The data were analyzed quantitatively (one-sample T-test, Pearson test and AHP and Barda methods). The findings show that according to the experts' opinion, the effective indicators in identifying tourism capacities are distance from roads, distance from historical attractions, distance from residential centers, distance from natural attractions, type and soil suitability, distance from water resources , Elevation, direction of gradient, slope, land use and precipitation. The results show that 24 percent of the total area of the area has relatively good capacity and is located in the central, eastern and northeastern parts of the province. The most important criteria that have made these areas selected as optimal areas are the density of natural-ecological elements such as the existence of diverse deserts and deserts, geotops, glacier cirques, and historical-cultural elements such as traditional water reservoirs, markets, shrines and temples And so on. Also, 26% of the area has average power, which is mostly located in the east and northeast of the province. Finally, areas with inappropriate and relatively inappropriate power are found in parts of the eastern province of Karshra that occupy 51% of the total area of the zone. The results of measuring the social sustainability status of desert and desert areas based on indicators (population distribution, transport infrastructure, immigration status and deprivation rate) show that Yazd city has the highest ranking and Ardakan, Bafgh, Mehriz , Taft Meybod and Abarkuhh moderate sustainability, and finally Khatam, Saduj and Bahabad are among the unstable and less developed cities of Yazd province. The results of Pearson correlation coefficient showed that there is a significant relationship between tourism development and social sustainability in different regions of Yazd province at 99% level. This means that areas with demographic, demographic, and low levels of social sustainability have lower attraction and tourism capabilities than other Yazd province cities.

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New Social Movements: A Case Study of Emerging Environmental Movements

Abstract
The term modern social movements is used to describe movements that were active in France in the late 1960s through collective action in the social sphere. The most important new social movements are the civil rights movement, the women's movement, the peace movement and the environmental movement. The rapid growth of industrial and capitalist societies, regardless of environmental degradation, has created many problems. The most important problems are soil erosion, resource reduction, ozone depletion, greenhouse effects, extinction of animal and plant species and various types of soil and climate pollution. The combination of these factors has provided the basis for the formation and activation of environmental movements. The present paper tries to answer the question of how emerging environmental movements can be analyzed in the form of new social movements? And what are their effects on new social movements? Therefore, with the qualitative interpretive method, and the method of case studies, it examines the nature and why of emerging environmental movements. The research findings show that environmental crises and the need to solve environmental problems that have become a pervasive and global crisis, have provided the basis for the formation, activity and impact of emerging environmental movements. Therefore, in order to deal with the existing crises, emerging environmental movements first informed and increased public awareness, and then created pro-environmental organizations and groups, and finally, by entering In the field of politics, and using new tools and methods, they have expressed their demands and protests in a peaceful and non-violent way, in order to force governments to respond and finally enter directly into The field of politics as influential groups and political parties in the field of public policy. As a result, the volume and scope of social power and the political influence of emerging environmental movements have led to the revitalization and enrichment of new social movements; in a way that today they can be identified and analyzed as powerful social forces and influential actors in the field of political sociology.

Keywords: New Social Movements, Emerging Environmental Movements, Social Forces, Methods of Action, Political Nature.

 

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he spread of Covid-19 in the rural areas of the country has caused more dangers due to the common rural cultures, and the ignorance and lack of efficient management of this crisis in the villages has caused irreparable consequences for these areas. In such cases, the existence of social capital can be very vital in creating national consensus and successful policies to pass this critical stage. Leading research is applied in terms of purpose and based on descriptive-analytical nature. To determine the sample size of villagers, using Cochran's formula, from the total of 6903 households in sample villages, 362 households were calculated as sample households to complete the questionnaire. In order to investigate the effects of social capital on economic and social indicators that are effective in reducing the vulnerability of the outbreak of Covid-19 in the border villages of Sistan, a wide range of indicators was determined, and from the one-sample T-test and the analysis of variance of the regression model to measure the The evaluation of the effects of social capital on socio-economic indicators effective in reducing the vulnerability of the outbreak of Covid-19 in the border villages of Sistan was used. The results of the research showed that the higher the level of people's participation and their trust towards each other, the higher the level of responsibility and knowledge of people, it has a positive role and effect on social and economic indicators in order to reduce the vulnerability of the spread of the covid disease. has had 19