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Many researchers in the field of socio-linguistics, sociology and feminism have done research on the principle of language showing that there are some differences between the language of men and women. The question is that whether gender plays any role in literary language(poetry) and besides phonetic, lexical and syntactic levels of language ifimages, such as simile and metaphor, are gender-oriented and are influenced by the mentality of women poets.In this researchthe influence of gender on the use of simile and metaphor in the poetry of ten contemporary Iranian women poets have been studied. First, one or two collections of the poetry of these poets have been randomly chosen, and secondthe two main figures of simile and metaphor have been analyzed in respect of gender. It is concluded that due to differences between men and women, such as their social and biological background, women poets use gender-oriented similes and metaphors. Moreover, they use these types of similes and metaphors to express their romantic and sensual-emotional tendencies.

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Metaphor is one of the most important entries in Rhetoric, at least in the classic meaning of the term. Today its most accepted definition, a trope indicating similarity, is the outcome of the efforts of great men such as Abdol Ghader Jorjani and Abu Yaghub Sakaki, who introduced and developed this theory in Islamic Rhetoric. Jorjani's theory of metaphor, which is the result of his deep investigation in the works of the ancient scholars and writers, shows a functionalist insight in to metaphor. The scholars of eloquence, Jorjan being the last in their chain, had a particular attention to the holy Quran in their study of rhetoric, which made them see that linguistic segments play an important role in reading the verses of the Quran. In his book, Miftah Al-Ulum, Sakaki, who followed Jorjani's theory, gives the theory another interpretation. While Jorjani had a deep insight in to the role of linguistic segments, Sakaki's literature-based view leads him to ignore the necessity of considering the function in metaphor. Comparing the views of these two theorists reveals that they have different ideas, not only regarding this issue but concerning so many other issues. The present study aims to investigate these differences and endeavours to show the differences of these two scholars on the definition and nature of metaphor and the way it should be treated

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Narratologists often make a distinction between classical and modern narratives and contend that classical fiction mainly focuses on characteristics such as the intention of the author, the single and fixed meaning of the narrative, and its closure. In contrast, in modern fiction certain other elements are emphasized like the centrality of the reader, lack of closure, plurality of meaning, and intertextuality. However, with a glance at some classical texts like Ferdowsi’s Shahnameh this distinction can be challenged. For example, Ferdowsi employs certain mythological and symbolic narratives in his epic which had no place in classical literature and at the same time he warns the reader not to restrict himself to the surface meaning of the story. Thus he lifts the addressee to narrative addressee and makes his stories open-ended and open to interpretation

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Diction as a primary means of writing poetry is the poet’s medium to express his ideas. Analyzing the title of the poems as a part of diction can be a way to appreciating the aesthetic features of poetry. On the other hand, titles are usually the most important chosen words of the poet and, therefore, by studying the poet's titles one can understand the poet's thoughts. This research is a statistical analysis of the titles of The Mirror for Sounds by Mohammad Reza Shafiy Kadkany (M. Sereshk). It attempts to analyze the titles from different perspectives, namely lexically, linguistically and semantically. To this purpose, the seven chapters of this book were analyzed statistically and the relationship between the titles and the poet’s thoughts was investigated. In addition, in a diagram the significance of the role of the titles in different periods of the poet’s life was indicated. No doubt M. Sereshk had a wide repertoire of Persian words that he employed properly in his titles and, therefore, he has used his titles in their full literary and lexical capacity.

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Pragmatics is related to language use in context. A single sentence can have different functions in different contexts. Hence, the meaning is the same as function and the function does not exist out of context; however, the type of sentence has a decisive role in inferring the right meaning. The interrogative sentence in Persian language has two types of rhetorical and non-rhetorical questions. The aim of rhetorical interrogative statement is to convey the message indirectly and more effectively. Qeysar Aminpour has employed interrogative statements in various and different ways in his five poetry books. The questions mentioned in each poetry book are the results of the poet’s social circumstances and his intellectual-emotional perceptions. By moving from the first period to the third one, the questions become more contemplative and realistic in terms of quality and intellectual aspects. Therefore, by investigating the intentions behind interrogatives based on time process, the intellectual-emotional metamorphosis of the poet can be recognized. Most of these intentions include: 1. Astonishment, 2. Doubt, 3. Criticizing, 4. Hope, and 5. Desperation. Astonishment in Qeysar’s poems moves from certainty in revolution and war goals to astonishment in self-discovery and achievement of the goals. His doubt is basically related to third period due to his astonishments including belief, pragmatic and realistic aspects. The most important intellectual-emotional metamorphoses of the poet include: 1. From certainty to uncertainty, 2. From utopia to real life, 3. From individualism to collectivism, 4. From attitude to insight or from observation to contemplation, 5. From winning the war to victory over the war, and 6. From despair to hope .

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Styles in the normal course of historical development change and evolve, and in the process of this movement and change, some poets play a vital role. These poets try to be inventive in order to escape banality and repeated and shallow literary traditions, and by creating a rift between themselves and former traditions they introduce new elements.  These artists either create new figures or take an old but neglected one and develop it to give a special flavor to their personal style, or by introducing it to other poets they help in developing a new style. Hafiz is a good example of such artists. This article is an attempt to describe the figure "ambiguous metaphor of irony", as a mixed and already known figure (though unconsciously, not consciously), in the poetry of the poets before Hafiz, his role is highlighted in the rediscovery and serious development of this figure and its moderate use and finally its transference to the Indian style  where it had its highest development.

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Parvin-e E`tesami, the daughter of Yousef E`tesami, was one of the eminent poets of the constitutional period. Her father, E`tesam al-Molk was a remarkable intellectual. He was one of the very first translators and one of the writers whose work started Romanticism in Iran in the last years of Qajar dynasty. He translated pieces from a vast range of topics and, thus, he had an undeniable role in the development of literature and also a modernist look towards life. As the time passed, the idea of Parvin imitating and taking from her father’s works became a widely cited view among the scholars. This research, by using a statistical-analytical method, has investigated the quality and quantity of this linkage in some points (such as diction, imagery, themes, characters) and shows that although Parvin, like any other poet, was influenced by many thoughts and ideas, for some clear reasons the strongest influence was that of her father. It is of course obvious that this influence does not mean mere imitation or plagiarism. The conclusion of this research is that the poet had some innovations in form, format and point of view that formed her special thought and style in poetry. This unique outlook, especially on the common issues of the day, is what indeed makes her a well-known and unforgettable poet.

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Binary oppositions are among the essential concepts and components of structuralism and linguistic and semiotic theories that are rooted in human ancient beliefs. One of the fundamental functions of the human mind is the creation of binary oppositions, which are seen in art and literature. The study of binary oppositions in literary works leads to a better understanding of them. This article is an attempt to discuss the binary oppositions in the lyrics of Attar Neishabouri. A close study of 100 chosen lyrics of Attar shows that many of the lyrics are formed by binary oppositions and even in some verses there are two, three, or four binary oppositions, as if binary oppositions are the driving force behind many of Attar's lyrics. The study of these lyrics shows that there are 843 cases of binary oppositions of which 47 percent (396 cases) are lexical, 35.5% (298 cases) are semantic, and 17.5 percent (149) are thematic. There are about 8.4 binary oppositions in every lyric which shows the great frequency of this type of diction. The main reason that Attar is interested in binary oppositions is that the poet is influenced by his unconscious, the importance he gives to moral and religious issues, his consideration of mystical concepts, the effect of the social environment and the his interest in aesthetics and music. In short, binary oppositions are considered as one of the stylistic characteristics of Attar's lyrics that have semantic and aesthetics functions.

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The concept of "other" is one of the fundamental concepts of philosophy, especially in the twentieth century and in the works of Husserl, Heidegger, Sartre and Levinas, which carriesepistemological and ontological importance. It was also introduced by Mikhail Bakhtin in the field of literature and literary theory. From another perspective, Naser Khosrow developed and introduced such a concept after joining the Ismaili sect, concerning an urban vision of religion, the ruler and the ruled, poetry, and philosophy. Accordingly, everyone steps beyond or below these lines was not exempt from Naser Khosrow’s satiric reproach. In this article the researcher explains the theoretical foundations of the concept “the other” and also the Naseri Utopia. Moreover, the researcher intends to describe and analyze the treatment of the poet of different classes and political, social, philosophical, and literary groups.

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Irony is one of the important and at the same time complex terms in rhetoric, philosophy and literary criticism that Persian texts have employed its potentialities under various headings such as satire, asterism, etc. In the meantime, one of the rhetorical basesofMasnavi isMawlawi's artistic and skillful use of humor and its various types. Mawlawi's specific skill in recognizing his  audience  and his dedication to explicate grand concepts of religion, mysticism and morality led him tochoosehumor as an indirect way of expression because of its high functionality, and great power to attract and persuade the audience.This paves the way for different types of irony to appear in the entire Masnavi, especially in its Fifth Book. Among different types of ironythat are present in Masnaviare verbal, situational and dramatic ironies. In this article, which is library-based and is done through descriptive-analytic method, the authors will investigate different modes of irony in Mawlawi’sMasnavi. It concludes that because of Masnavi’s allegorical and diegetic character, dramatic irony has a special standing in Masnavi.

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So far, many thinkers with different approaches have studied the concept of “the other” and its examples in various aspects of human life. Literature has also attracted the attention of researchers and interested scholars as a platform for representing examples of “the other”. In addition to recognizing the place of “otherness” in the worldview of individuals in different eras, studying examples of “the other” in the literary texts has also made it possible to delimit the realm of “I”. In this paper, using an analytical method and adopting an eclectic approach, the researchers studied the potentials of Rumi’s Mathnavi in ​​representing the types of “the other” and in realizing the levels of otherness of “the other” and its place in the mystical worldview so as to gain a relative knowledge of the structures that govern mystical thoughts. To that end, we first explained the concept of “the other” in three intellectual-philosophical systems, namely contrastive, dialectical and intersubjective, and mentioned examples of “the other” in verses of Mathnavi. Then, we presented a reading of the levels of realization of otherness of “the other” and the conditions of their possibility in this text. From a general point of view, due to the contrastive structure of the mystical worldview and the definition of “the other” as an “alien”, the realization of high levels of otherness in the text of Mathnavi cannot be expected, but the narrative of the experience of union and depicting the inability of “I” to understand “the infinite other” can be regarded as representation of the highest level of otherness. Meanwhile, in the distance from the “alien” to “the infinite other” and through dialogue, a level of otherness is also represented in the relationship between the characters in some stories of Mathnavi.
 

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Verse and prose have had proponents and opponents in the literary tradition throughout history, and each group has argued for or against the other. By overcoming this dual opposition without taking the side of poetry or prose and adopting a philosophical and aesthetic approach, Abū Hayyān al-Tawhīdī revealed other aspects of the relationship between verse and prose. Quoting the opinions of the advocates of poetry and prose, the present paper objectively analyzes the monotheistic meta-dualism approach in Al-Imtāʿ wa al-Mu’ānasa using a descriptive-analytical method. The results indicate that by rereading the works of the proponents of verse and prose, Tawhīdī believes that the final word cannot be stated about poetry and prose. Moreover, after explaining the nature of speech and its types, he mentions the advantages of verse and prose in the words of their advocates: e.g., verse is creation and the general public does not attain it, while prose is realized faster and attracts the general writer for its convenience; prose needs poetry for adornment, but poetry does not need prose; the poet has an infinite horizon ahead while the writer has a limited field, and prose is the foundation of speech but poetry is its derivative; prose is free of obligations while poetry is full of poetic requirements; prose borrows from wisdom but poetry borrows from emotion; and despite the formal beauty of verse, prose is more original and noble. Finally, he concludes that both verse and prose have undeniable virtues and the best type of speech is one that its form is something between verse and prose while it is neither verse nor prose.
 

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The geometrical complexity of some images, especially Indian-style images, which are not found in the field of traditional expression and which have not been mentioned by scholars in the historical tradition, is such that one must use a suitable tool to analyze them. In the present study, conducted by quantitative statistical analysis, first, frequency was usedto examine and compare the number of single and compound techniques in 500 verses of Bidel’s sonnets (which were randomly selected from all over his divan).Then, the three compound techniques of “irony metaphor”, “metaphorical amphibology metaphor” and “metaphorical amphibology irony simile” were examined in the structure of images of Bidel.The results of this study show that in both verses of Bidel’s poems, there is almost onecompound technique; additionally, onethird of Bidel’s images are created with the help of these techniques, and this means that by contenting ourselves with the four elements of traditional expression (simile, metaphor, irony, and metonymy) and ignoring the literary tools of compounding, the analysis and interpretation of Bidel’spoems will be incomplete.
 

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Most of the research conducted on the subject of “language” and its role in the field of mystical texts, has focused on the objective reflection of language (the investigation of language in speech and writing), an area that is actually regarded as second-order knowledge. It is very important to pay attention to the first-order knowledge, which is defined as knowing the nature of the language itself and every individual (mystic’s) interpretation of what it is – which is mostly neglected. That is why before the stage of proof and realization of language; the position of proof and interpretation of the language is a principle, and before the language reaches the level of realization and emergence, the manner of its interpretation and determination is formed. One of the thoughtful mystics who contemplated about the nature of language and wrote about it in his works is Imam Mohammad Ghazali. This study, based on a descriptive-analytical method, tries to investigate Imam Muhammad Ghazali’s thoughts on the field of language and its nature (first-order knowledge) in the light of some of Saussure’s linguistic ideas. The emergence and realization of language in the form of terminology and universals (second-order knowledge) is another aim of this research. The results indicated that, in explaining the subject of language, as a philosopher, Ghazali discussed the makeup and nature of language and from the point of view of a linguist, he looked into the process of language development in spoken and written forms.
 

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In order to understand the meaning of existence, Heidegger analyzes the existential possibilities of the German word for existence, i.e. Dasein, and among these possibilities, he pays special attention to the relationship between language and existence. In addition to speaking, he considers silence as one of the linguistic possibilities. According to Heidegger, linguistic silence has the potential to reveal existence much more broadly than just speaking. This revelation of existence and hearing the voice of existence in silence gives it an interpretive quality, which Heidegger calls hermeneutics. Since in our mystical heritage, Mawlana Jalaluddin Muḥammad (Rumi) speaks of silence and reticence in most of his ghazals, the authors of this article believe that in the light of Heidegger's conception of silence, new horizons of this concept can be opened up in the ghazals of Shams in order to show its interpretive and hermeneutic features in the following propositions: “from the unworldliness of Dasein to the annihilation of the truth-seeker in the general sense and its connection with silence”, “from Dasein's transition from the linguistic position to the linguistic annihilation of the truth-seeker in the specific sense and its connection with silence”, “the hermeneutics of silence and the reception of genuine speech from Dasein to the truth-seeker”, and “Rumi's hermeneutic silence and the reception of genuine speech” as proof of this claim. By proposing genuine silence, Rumi provides a ground for the soul and the world of existence to speak up and to display the shortcomings and inadequacies of language and to reveal the secrets of the universe. Attention to the hermeneutic aspect of silence in the ghazals of Shams distinguishes the present article from the existing research and a new achievement in the field of Rumi research will emerge.
 

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Poetry and painting are two different ways to create works of art, and their close correlation has always been the consideration of art history researchers and literary critics. Sohrab Sepehri is an artist who has tested his taste in both the fields of poetry and painting. Therefore, the present research, targeting a select collection of paintings of trees and Hasht Ketab (Eight Books) of Sepahri, in the light of the theory of Panofsky's Iconology, deals with a comparative and interdisciplinary study of these works. It also focuses on the image of trees in both poetic and painting media to analyze and explain the various structural and semantic aspects of common icons in order to discover the characteristics and connections between his poetic world and the art of painting. The main question is why and how the image of a tree acts differently in two linguistic and visual systems. Sepehri's approach to the element of tree in both poetry and painting contrasts with such concepts as dynamism and static, life and death, rootedness and rootlessness, fertility and infertile, openness, closure, and junction and disjunction whereas it sometimes gets very close to each other in such themes as strangeness and the sense of suspense. Sepehri is under the influence of the paradigm of modern Iranian painting in drawing the image of the tree and its space, in which the space is basically contracted, dark, and desperate. That's why the trees in his works act mostly in the direction of rupture. They move in the direction of disjunction from the world and the essence of existence which can be an allegory of Sepaheri's objective world.  However, the image of the tree in his poems is in line with the dominant concepts - a symbol of growth, freshness, and vitality - at the usual level far from the rhetorical signs and the uncommon domain of connotation in Persian literature. It is in fact an explanation of the ideal world of the poet.